Explain in what respects the Harappan civilization differed from that of the later Vedic civilization.

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The Harappan civilization was urban, trade-oriented and craft-based, with planned cities, no evident priestly or warrior rule and an undeciphered script, while the later Vedic civilization was rural and agrarian, monarchical, varna-stratified and centred on fire sacrifices. Vedic society used iron tools and composed Sanskrit texts like the Brahmanas.

**Introduction**

The Harappan civilization (2600-1900 BCE) was a pioneering urban culture, while the later Vedic civilization (from 1500 BCE) represented a rural, pastoral society with distinct social and religious frameworks. Understanding their differences reveals India’s historical transformations.

**Distinctive Features**

1. **Urbanism and Economy**: Harappans built well-planned cities like Mohenjo-daro with advanced drainage and engaged in maritime trade with Mesopotamia; later Vedic society was rural, relying on agriculture, cattle rearing, iron tools and Painted Grey Ware pottery.

2. **Political and Social Organization**: Harappan polity likely involved merchant oligarchies without warrior or priestly dominance; Vedic civilization featured monarchical rule supported by Brahmin priests and a rigid Varna system.

**Religious and Linguistic Differences**

3. **Religious Practices**: Harappan religion focused on fertility cults and animal motifs, with fire altars at only a few sites and no horse symbolism; later Vedic religion emphasized elaborate fire sacrifices (yajnas) such as the Ashvamedha, with Prajapati, Vishnu and Rudra rising in importance.

4. **Language and Texts**: The Harappan script remains undeciphered, while the Vedic texts were composed in early Indo-Aryan Sanskrit, marking a clear linguistic shift.

**Critical Perspectives and Way Forward**

5. **Technology and Continuity**: Harappans used copper and bronze, while later Vedic society used iron; separated by centuries, Harappan urbanism did not directly continue into the Vedic period.

6. **Research and Preservation**: Promoting interdisciplinary research and conserving sites like Dholavira are vital for deeper understanding.

**Conclusion**

The Harappan and later Vedic civilizations differ in urbanism, economy, polity, religion, and language, highlighting India’s complex cultural evolution.

Explain in what respects the Harappan civilization differed from that of the later Vedic civilization.

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